The runes, primarily in their Younger form, remained in common use until well into the 17th. century. Up until this time, they were found on everything from coins to coffins, and in some places their use was actually sanctioned by the Church. Even the common people knew simple runic spells, and the runes were frequently consulted on matters of both public and private interest. Unfortunately, as with most of the magical arts, they were officially banned in 1639 as part of the Church's efforts to "drive the devil out of Europe". The rune masters were either executed or went underground, and the knowledge of the runes may well have died with them. Some say that the knowledge was passed on in secret, but it is almost impossible to separate ancient traditions from more modern esoteric philosophies in such cases.

Perhaps the darkest period in the history of runic studies was their revival by German scholars connected with the Nazi movement in the 20's and 30's. What began as a legitimate folkloric resurgence unfortunately became so tainted by Nazi ideology and racism that the research from this period was rendered all but useless to any serious student of runic lore.

After the Second World War, the runes fell into disfavour as a result of their association with Naziism, and very little was written about them until the fifties and sixties. It was not until the mid-eighties, with the widespread appeal of the "New Age" movement and the revival of Pagan religions (especially the Asatru movement) that the runes regained their popularity as both a divinatory system and a tool for self-awareness.

Reading Runes

 Mannaz : M 
  Human, mankind  The Old English Rune Poem says: (Mann) is, in his mirth, dear to his kinsman; although each shall depart from the other. It is a rune of the human existence, of which life and death are both part. It is the rune of mortality. It also represents interdependence and support, as well as duty and responsibility. No individual is independent of others, each is part of a larger pattern. We are individuals, but in a society.. for all there are roles which, whether we realize it or not, all effect.

Ansuz : A  
 Windblown cloak of Odhinn, giver inspired speech (Ond)  This is the rune of inspired speech and incantation as a creative expression. It is linked with the ancestors, the magic of speech which passes along knowledge with the breath of life, the passing of knowledge through the spoken word, as differentiated from the written. It is the rune of the poet, the saga, the seer, those of inspired speech. It thus represents the ecstasy of inspiration, the "swan song" chanting out one's life as he or she prepares to meet death, the first cry of a newborn baby. It is whistling in the dark to banish fear. It encompasses the power of suggestion and sublimation. 

 Uruz : U
Primal force, strength.  Audhumla, the great cow (primal force) which was formed from the dripping rime produced from the meeting of the fires of Muspilheim and the yeast laden ice of Neiflheim. She was the "shaping force" that licked the ice into the form of the primal giant Ymir, and was the source of sustenance for him.  The auroch is the wild ox, large and fierce. It is protective when in defense of its territory or young. Though controllable, the Ox is undomesticable and can be dangerous. Uruz is associated with the primal creative force, primitive, earliest or original. 

 Nauthiz : N
 Need  Naudhiz is another of the cosmic forces which is recognized as being a "shaping" power which form the fates of the world and mankind. It is associated with the Nornir who are the "shapers." In the rune poems it represents the layered concept of necessity providing the friction that leads to transformation. It represents the fire bow which engenders the "need-fire." It is the cause of the spark that leads to the fire. The friction that begets the raging flames.

Eiwaz : EI / I 
Yew tree  Eiwaz represents the spinning World Tree, Yggdrasil. It is the axis about which all else revolves and spins out of. It contains the mystery of life and death. It is a life giving force which has its roots in the Underworld, and death. The yew is a powerful stave of protection and banishing, not only because of its association with the forces of life and death, but because of its association with the bow made of yew wood. The yew bow was an extremely powerful weapon, thus associating itself with the power of active defense, and death. The spinning Yggdrasil, from which all else revolves, is also thus the sustainer of thing. In it is the both creation and destruction.. the process of Birth, Evolution, and Entropy.

Fehu : F 
Property, wealth (cattle, gold, material gain)  The basic meaning is wealth in the sense of material gain, whether via money or possessions. In their time, cattle was a measuring of one's wealth. Fee, or payment, comes from this root of this stave. It may also be interpreted as an increase of fellowship and friendship, a wealth of another kind.

Jera : J / Y The (good) year, harvest  It is the completion of a cycle, a season, or a year, representing the dynamic rotation and changes of the cycles. It is the fruitful completion of a cycle, or the eternal contrast of opposites which provide a whole. It is invoked for a good season (or harvest) and is associated with fertility. The name is similar to "Ari" which is another OldNorse word for eagle, a solar symbol. In either case it is the energy which brings to fruition our efforts. 

Tiwaz : T  The god Tyr -- A spear point, or arrow. A guiding star.  The T-rune is primarily one of justice since Tyr is the Norse god who presided at the "thing", (the Germanic general judiciary assembly). Judgment was not always arrived at by discussion, judgment by arms was a common concept to the Norse/Germanic cultures. It is associated with the idea that "justice will prevail." The Old English Rune Poem, says Tir is a star, it keeps its faith well. It is always on its course over the mists of night. It is represents the guiding principles which are steadfast and can be relied on to judge one's position.

Ehwaz : E
Horse, or ehwo: the "two" horses  Ehwaz is associated with "twin" gods or heroes, the divine twins, or two horses. The Saxon conquers of Britain were Hengist and Horsa (stallion and horse). It is the harmonious relationship between two forces. With its close connection to the horse it is also a symbol of fertility, and partnerships. These partnerships thus act as one, although from two or more distinctly different parts.  The Ehwaz was connected closely to the concept of a man's fetch, the spiritual "horse" that carries one on the journey between worlds. It is the rune of Sleipnir, Odhinn's eight legged horse which bore him on journeys across both Asgard and Midgard. Also, it was upon Sleipnir that Hermod rode to the netherworld to Hella's domain to request that Balder be returned to the living gods. It facilitates "soul travel" or the shaman's journey. As such it can be used to obtained hidden knowledge or knowledge from a distance. The term "nightmare" is closely related, the spiritual horse we ride during the night as we sleep.  It can represent a journey in consciousness, a swifter travel then that of Raido, and one that is protected or guided. Either deeper within or in the Astral. Although the fetch is in many ways symbolized by the horse, the fetch may be of man, woman, or any spirit form. Any sprit guide you work with closely may be one's fetch.

 Hagalaz : H
Hagalaz hail, egg (?)  The Anglo-Saxon rune poem refers to "hail" as being "grain" which falls and turns into water after being tossed about by wind. The layered nature of a hailstone was recognized, as well as the potential for destruction and the transformative qualities. The concepts that surround Hagalaz recognize that the destructive potential for hail out of season is balanced by the potential for transformation that will bring new fertility and growth as it thaws. 

Thurisaz : Th 
 Thor, the enemy of unfriendly forces; The thorn on brambles.  Thurisaz is a force of defense and destruction. "Bramble" or thorny bushes were used to "fence" and protect boundaries. One form of Norse/Germanic execution was to throw criminals "into thorns", pikes which were stuck into the earth. 

Isa : I  Ice  It is the primal ice, the icy stream (or glacier) that flows from Niflheimr. Is an "elemental" rune. It's form can be seen in nearly all of the other runes. It is associated with the rime-giants, the hrimthursar, and the wisdom of age. Ice can be considered "static" as many do, however, ice whether one is speaking of the rune or of actual ice is a mysterious substance. Isa can bring things to a halt, or place something in suspension. But the mysterious flow of the glacier is also inherent in Isa, as it is related to the primal stream. Ice can also be an expansive force, or one that crushes anything caught in its grasp.

 Gebo : G Exchanged gifts  Gebo represents hospitality, generosity and giving. It is the joining of giver and the one who receives. As Thorsson points out in "Futhark: A Handbook of Rune Magic" it also has the meaning of a gift from the Deities, particularly through union. He relates the gift to the wisdom received by the hero from the valkyrja. 

Othala : O Ancestral property  Othala is the rune of the sacred enclosure, the homeland, the village, the homestead. It is the family group, its customs, lands and language as well as the duties and responsibilities that go along with maintaining family ties. Its the concept of ones ancestry, not only of the immediate and extend family, but also that of long bloodlines.. the root of one's birth. It can be used to invoke a solid and peaceful family or group life, and to continual growth and prosperity. It is the "inherited" wealth that comes from one's ancestors, the customs as well as property or physical attributes. It represents the wise management of family assets or one's family or kin. 

Perthro : P  Dice cup or Lot cup  Perthro is one of the mysteries of the runes. As a container with the lots of life, Perthro represents the opportunities of chance which can not be controlled. However the pieces fall, the player must move boldly taking what is cast and make up for in skill and wisdom any lack in luck itself. It contains the mystery of the Nornic runes. It is the rune of the vitki, the one who seeks the mysteries of the cosmos through the understanding of synchronicity. It is the rune of the warrior who constantly tests himself against chance and luck, even to that of Fate. 

 Ingwaz : Ng  The god Ing / Freyer  Ingwaz is associated with Nerthus as well as Ing, and thus also Freyer. It is primarily a rune of fertility and growth. The circuit of the wagon that was associated with their respective worship, represented the "king's circuit", the walking of the bounds, or the circuit of the sacred wagon which insured fertility to the land. It is a rune of ritual embodying action on behalf of the earth and mankind. Just as the greening of the earth follows the northerly progression of the sun, and retreats in it's wake, the rune is one of movement as well as action and reaction.  It is a rune of invocation and action, as well as responsibility. It is a rune of warmth and inner fire. It can be used to stimulate the growth of slumbering abilities into full growth. It is the container of energies to be relased to promote growth. Ing is closely related to Jera, as well that of the respective runes for male and female fertility. The seed from which things will grow and be transformed.

Elhaz or Algiz: EProtection, the antlers of the Elk, the splayed hand thrust forward  The Old English name, "elk-sedge" is a kenning for sword, and thus may represent a two-edged blade. It can be seen as the godhi or gydhja ( priest or priestess) in the attitude of addressing or invoking the gods. Thorsson gives the esoteric interpretation of the name as the protective foces, valkyrijur. It can represent the splayed hand, the horns of the elk, a swan in flight, the branches or a tree, a divergence or convergence of paths or forces. It is a sign used to promote victory and protection. The Gothic word "alhs" or sanctuary is also closely related. If you look at the rune, and were to enclose it with a circle, you would also have the commonly displayed "peace" symbol. In this instance, the peace is found within the containing circle, protected. 

Wanjo: W Happiness and joy, glory. The battle well-fought and won. A wand. Prosperity and good fellowship. Peacefulness.  There is a term in Anglo-Saxon, "wuldortanas", which is "glory twigs." which many experts associate with the rune.

Kenaz : K  Torch, the of bearing illumination  It is the flame of transformation and regeneration. It is associated with kin and the sacred fires of sexual generation as well as the "kith and kin" who gather around the hearth. It is the flame of the forge, the volcano and deep earth energies. It is the controlled flame of the artist and craftsman. It "breaks out" in unexpected ways, and holds the power to create and/or destroy. It is a primal force of creation, in the myths it is fire and ice that produce the life force.     

 Berkano : B  Birch, the birch goddess, birch twigs  The B-rune is related to the Great Mother, the Earth Goddess. It is the mother of manifestation and of birth and rebirth. The birch tree was often planted before a home to protect it in Scandinavian countries, and the custom continued to be observed in America where settlers built new homes. It is used in "birthing" new ideas, bringing them to life. The birch is frequently the wood from which many a wand was also carved, thus the striking of an object or magickally charged item with the wand is thought to be the releasing action of energies applied before. It can represent or bring about a rebirth in spirit, as well as the renewal of spring after a period of winter.  It is representative of the Feminine energies at work. Nurturing, frequently subtle, and thus thought to be the counterpart to the energies found in Tiwaz.

Laguz : L 
A body of water (or laukaz: leek)  The sea and other bodies of water, like the earth, were considered a source of wealth and fertility and an expression of the unconscious and undiscovered mysteries of life and death. The Aegir, the gods and goddesses of the sea, both gave and took life and offered fertility and wealth. They were the brewers and the Norse looked at the foaming vat of beer and related it to froth of the ocean. Mead brewed during the full moon was often given as a gift to newly-weds .. thus the term Honey-Moon.  It represents ebb and flow, and dark currents. Those currents may be soft and trickling, or sweeping and forceful. It can carve through rock and yet be moved by one's hand. Laguz can be the water in a well, bubbling up from secret depths, or dark and still, reflecting and yet revealing nothing beneath the surface. It seeks its own level, taking the path of least resistance at times, at other times sinking into the earth to rise in a distant place. The ship burials, and stone "boat" graves reveal the association of water with the journey of death, a rite of passage. 

 Raido : R
A cosmic chariot, solar chariot. A chariot of a god or goddess; The Ecstatic journey  Rhythm and movement are important to the concept of Raido. The sound and dance of the ecstatic traveler who is carried on a circular journey. The spiral journey of the sun on it's annual course from North to South and back, as in the journey of Nerthus and Freyr's processions. It is the wheeling of stars around the cosmic axis. It can be thought of as the chariot of Thor or Freyja or any other cosmic "transportation." As the chariot is primal forces controlled by conscious thought. 

Dagaz : D Day or Twilight (the border of the new day)  Dagaz refers to the a day, a period of darkness and light, since the Norse counted their days from evening to evening, with the mid-point being dawn and the rising of the sun. It is the rune of awakening, and metaphorically, of rebirth. It represents a time that cannot be defined, a place between places that are yet still interdependent of the other.  It is a rune of paradox, the balancing of opposites and movement, not as contradictions and opposition, but as counterbalances and compliments. It represents light, paradox. It is the rune of "clear vision" and "enlightenment." It represents time and space, and the weaving movement of the loom of life. One can also liken this rune to that of the symbol of Yin-Yang. In this we also see the theory of Dynamic energies, as well as that of the living counterpart.  

 Sowilo : S / Z    Sol / Sun 
The S-rune is that of the sun, part of the solar wheel. Both the words "sol" and "sunna" for the sun in Old Norse are feminine in nature as were the cosmic forces represented by the sun. It is the counter-force to Isa, or the cosmic ice. The S-rune is often connected to the lightning bolt, or a flash of inspiration or ecstasy. It strengthens the spiritual and psychic powers and abilities, increasing spiritual might. It provides "enlightenment" and success through individual will.  It is a rune of education and understanding, as well as one that transforms ice to water, a transformative force. It can represent high achievements, honor and obtained goals. It is power radiating, from the source and lighting all it touches. It can be healing as well as a cleansing energy or light. Also, this can be the persistence of an influence or energy to which things may flourish, or be steadily weathered away.

The Elder Futhark (c. 150–800)

Type	Alphabet
Spoken languages	Germanic languages
Time period	Elder Futhark from the 2nd century
Parent systems	Phoenician alphabet  → Greek alphabet (Cumae variant)   → Old Italic alphabet    → Runic
Child systems	Younger Futhark, Anglo-Saxon Futhorc
Sister systems	Latin alphabet
ISO 15924	Runr

The Elder Futhark (or Elder Fuþark, Older Futhark, Old Futhark) is the oldest form of the runic alphabet, used by Germanic tribes for Proto-Norse and other Migration period Germanic dialects of the 2nd to 8th centuries for inscriptions on artifacts (jewellery, amulets, tools, weapons) and rune stones. In Scandinavia, the script was simplified to the Younger Futhark from the late 8th century, while the Anglo-Saxons and Frisians extended the Futhark which eventually became the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc after Proto-English /a/ developed to /o/ in nasal environments.

Unlike the younger futhark which remained in use until modern times, the knowledge of how to read the Elder Futhark was forgotten, and it was not until 1865 that the Norwegian scholar Sophus Bugge managed to decipher it.

The Elder Futhark (named after the initial phoneme of the first six rune names: F, U, Th, A, R and K) consist of twenty-four runes, often arranged in three groups or aett of eight each. In the following table, each rune is given with its common transliteration:

f	u	þ	a	r	k	g	w
h	n	i	j	ï	p	z	s
t	b	e	m	l	ŋ	d	o

þ corresponds to IPA [θ]. ï is also transcribed as æ, and may have been either a diphthong, or a vowel near [ɪ] or [æ]. z was Proto-Germanic [z], and evolved into Primitive Norse [ɹ], and is also transliterated as R. The remaining transliterations correspond to the IPA symbol of their approximate value.

The earliest known sequential listing of the alphabet dates to ca. 400 and is found on the Kylver Stone in Gotland:

[f]uþarkg[w]hnijpïzstbemlŋdo

Two instances of another early inscription were found on the two Vadstena and Mariedamm bracteates (6th century), showing the division in three ætts, with the positions of ï, p and o, d inverted compared to the Kylver stone:

fuþarkgw; hnijïpzs; tbemlŋod

The Grumpan bracteate presents a listing from c. 500 which is identical to the one found on the previous bracteates but incomplete:

fuþarkgw ... hnijïp(z) ... tbeml(ŋ)(o)d

The Anglo-Saxon (also, Anglo-Frisian) Futhorc is a runic alphabet, extended from the Elder Futhark from 24 to between 26 and 33 characters. It was used probably from the 5th century onward, recording Old English and Old Frisian.

There are competing theories as to the origins of the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc. One theory proposes that it was developed in Frisia and from there spread later to England. Another holds that runes were first introduced to England from Scandinavia where the futhorc was modified and then exported to Frisia. Both theories have their inherent weaknesses and a definitive answer likely awaits more archaeological evidence.

The early Futhorc was identical to the Elder Futhark but for the split of ᚨ a into three variants ᚪ āc, ᚫ æsc and ᚩ ōs, resulting in 26 runes. This was necessary to account for the new phoneme produced by the Ingvaeonic split of allophones of long and short a. The earliest ᚩ ōs rune is found on the 5th century Undley bracteate. ᚪ āc was introduced later, in the 6th century. The double-barred ᚻ hægl characteristic for continental inscriptions is first attested as late as 698, on St. Cuthbert's coffin; before that, the single-barred Scandinavian variant was used.

In England the Futhorc was further extended to 28 and finally to 33 runes, and runic writing in England became closely associated with the Latin scriptoria from the time of Anglo-Saxon Christianization in the 7th century. The futhorc started to be replaced by the Latin alphabet from around the 9th century. In some cases, texts would be written in the Latin alphabet but runes would be used in place of the word it represented, and the þorn and wynn came to be used as extensions of the Latin alphabet. By the Norman Conquest of 1066 it was very rare and disappeared altogether shortly thereafter. From at least five centuries of use, fewer than than 200 artifacts bearing futhorc inscriptions have survived.

The Anglo-Saxon rune poem (Cotton Otho B.x.165) has the following runes, listed with their Unicode glyphs, their names, their transliteration and their approximate phonetic value in IPA notation where different from the transliteration:

ᚠ feoh "wealth" f [f], [v]

ᚢ ur "aurochs" u

þorn "thorn" þ, ð [θ], [ð]

ᚩ ós "[a] god" ó

ᚱ rad "ride" r

ᚳ cen "torch" c [k]

ᚷ gyfu "gift" ȝ [g], [j]

ᚹ wynn "joy" w, ƿ [w]

ᚻ hægl "hail (precipitation)" h

ᚾ nyd "need, distress" n

ᛁ is "ice" i

ᛄ ger "year, harvest" j

ᛇ eoh "yew" eo

ᛈ peorð p

ᛉ eolh "elk-sedge" x

ᛋ sigel "Sun" s [s], [z]

ᛏ Tiw "Tiw" t

ᛒ beorc "birch" b

ᛖ eh "horse" e

ᛗ mann "man" m

ᛚ lagu "lake" l

ᛝ ing "Ing (a hero)" ŋ

ᛟ éðel "estate" œ

ᛞ dæg "day" d

ᚪ ac "oak" a

ᚫ æsc "ash-tree" æ

ᚣ yr "bow" y

ᛡ ior "eel" ia, io

ᛠ ear "grave" ea

The first 24 of these directly continue the Elder Futhark letters, extended by five additional runes, representing long vowels and diphthongs (á, æ, ý, ia, ea), comparable to the five forfeda of the Ogham alphabet.

tHORN and wYNN were introduced into the Latin English alphabet to represent [θ] and [w], but the they were replaced with th and w in Middle English.

The letter sequence, and indeed the letter inventory is not fixed. Compared to the letters of the rune poem given above,

f u þ o r c ȝ w h n i j eo p x s t b e m l ŋ œ d a æ y io ea

the Thames scramasax has 28 letters, with a slightly different order, and edhel missing:

f u þ o r c ȝ w h n i io eo p x s t b e ŋ d l m j a æ y ea

The Vienna Codex has also 28 letters; the Ruthwell Cross inscription has 31 letters; Cotton Domitian A.ix (11th century) has another four additional runes:

• ᛢ cweorð kw, a modification of peorð
• ᛣ calc "chalice" k (when doubled appearing as kk)
• ᛥ stan "stone" st
• ᚸ gar "spear" g (as opposed to palatalized ᚷ ȝ)

These four additional letters are not found epigraphically (the stan shape is found on the Westeremden yew-stick, but likely as a Spiegelrune). Cotton Domitian A.ix reaches thus a total of 33 letters, according to the transliteration introduced above arranged in the order

f u þ o r c ȝ w h n i j eo p x s t b e m l ŋ d œ a æ y ea io cw k st g

In the manuscript, the runes are arranged in three rows, glossed with Latin equivalents below (in the third row above) and with their names above (in the third row below). The manuscript has traces of corrections by a 16th century hand, inverting the position of m and d. Eolh is mistakenly labelled as sigel, and in place of sigel, there is a kaun like letter ᚴ, corrected to proper sigel ᛋ above it. Eoh is mis-labelled as eþel. Apart from ing and ear, all rune names are due to the later scribe, identified as Robert Talbot (died 1558).

feoh

ur

þorn

os

rað

cen

gifu

wen

hegel

neað

inc

geu{a}r

sigel

peorð

ᛋ sig

ᚠ

ᚢ

ᚦ

ᚩ

ᚱ

ᚳ

ᚷ

ᚹ

ᚻ

ᚾ

ᛁ

ᛄ

ᛇ

ᛈ

ᛉ

ᚴ

f

u

ð

o

r

c

g

uu

h

n

i

ge

eo

p

x

s

tir

berc

eþel

deg

lagu

mann

ᛙ pro

ac

ælc

yr

ᛏ

ᛒ

ᛖ

ᛗ

ᛚ

ᛝ

ᛞ

ᛟ

ᚪ

ᚫ

ᚣ

ᛡ

t

b

e

m{d}

l

ing

ð{m}

œ

a

æ

y

ear

{orent.} io

{cur.} q

{iolx} k

{z} sc{st}

{&} g

ᛠ

ᛢ

ᛣ

ᛥ

ᚸ

ᛘ

ior

cweorð

calc

stan

ear

Another futhorc row is found in Cotton Galba A.ii.

Walahfrid Strabo records a Futhorc row of 42 runes.

 

The Younger Futhark (800–1100)

The Younger Futhark, also called the Scandinavian Futhark, is a runic alphabet, a reduced form of the Elder Futhark, consisting of only 16 characters, in use from ca. AD 800. The reduction, paradoxically, happened at the same time as phonetic changes led to a greater number of different phonemes in the spoken language, when Proto-Norse evolved into Old Norse.

Thus, the language included distinct sounds and minimal pairs which weren't separate in writing. Also, since the writing custom avoided having the same rune twice in consecutive order, the spoken distinction between long and short vowels weren't retained in writing, either. The only real reason for using the same rune consecutively, would be when it represented different sounds following each other, such as carving kunuur for the name Gunvor.

 

Usage of the Younger Futhark is found in Scandinavia and Viking Age settlements abroad, probably in use from the 9th century onward. While the Migration Period Elder Futhark had been an actual "secret" known only to only a literate elite, with only some 350 surviving inscriptions, literacy in the Younger Futhark became widespread in Scandinavia, as witnessed by the great number of Runestones (some 6,000), sometimes inscribed with almost casual notes.

There is a transitional phase from ca. 650 to 800 showing mixed use of Elder and Younger Futhark letters, for example the Björketorp (ca. 650), Stentoften (ca. 650), Snoldelev and Rök (ca. 800) stones.

The Younger Futhark became known in Europe as the "alphabet of the Norsemen", and was studied in the interest of trade and diplomatic contacts, referred to as Abecedarium Nordmannicum in Frankish Fulda (possibly by Walahfrid Strabo) and ogam lochlannach "Ogham of the Scandinavians" in the Book of Ballymote.

The ogam lochlannach

The Younger Futhark is divided into long-branch (Danish) and short-twig (Swedish and Norwegian) runes. The difference between the two versions has been a matter of controversy. A general opinion is that the difference was functional, i.e. the long-branch runes were used for documentation on stone, whereas the short-branch runes were in every day use for private or official messages on wood. In addition the Hälsinge Runes (staveless runes, ca. 900–1200), Middle Age runes (ca. 1100–1500) and the latinised Dalecarlian futhark (ca. 1500–1910) were developed out of the Younger futhark.

The Icelandic and Norwegian rune poems have 16 runes, with the stave names ᚠ fe ("wealth"), ᚢ ur ("iron"/"rain"), ᚦ Thurs, ᚬ As/Oss, ᚱ reidh ("ride"), ᚴ kaun ("ulcer"), ᚼ hagall ("hail"), ᚾ naudhr/naud ("need"), ᛁ is/iss ("ice"), ᛅ ar ("plenty"), ᛋ sol ("sun"), ᛏ Tyr, ᛒ bjarkan/bjarken ("birch"), ᛘ madhr/madr ("man"), ᛚ logr/lög ("water"), ᛦ yr ("yew").

 Long-branch runes

the Younger Futhark (long-branch runes)

The long-branch runes are the following signs:

ᚠ ᚢ ᚦ ᚬ ᚱ ᚴ ᚼ ᚾ ᛁ ᛅ ᛋ ᛏ ᛒ ᛘ ᛚ ᛦ

f  u  þ  ą  r   k  h  n   i  a  s   t   b  m  l  ʀ

 Short-twig runes

short-twig runes

In the short-twig runes (or Rök runes), nine runes appear as simplified variants of the long-branch runes, while the remaining seven have identical shapes:

ᚠ ᚢ ᚦ ᚭ ᚱ ᚴ ᚽ ᚿ ᛁ ᛆ ᛌ ᛐ ᛓ ᛙ ᛚ ᛧ

 Hälsinge Runes (staveless runes)

staveless runes

Hälsinge runes are so named because in modern times they were first noticed in the Hälsingland region of Sweden. Later other runic inscriptions with the same runes were found in other parts of Sweden. They were used between the 10th and 12th centuries. The runes seem to be a simplification of the Swedish-Norwegian runes and lack vertical strokes, hence the name 'staveless.' They cover the same set of staves as the other Younger Futhark alphabets. This variant has no assigned Unicode range (as of Unicode 4.0).

 Medieval Runes

Medieval Runes

In the Middle Ages, the Younger Futhark in Scandinavia was expanded, so that it once more contained one sign for each phoneme of the old Norse language. Dotted variants of voiceless signs were introduced to denote the corresponding voiced consonants, or vice versa, voiceless variants of voiced consonants, and several new runes also appeared for vowel sounds. Inscriptions in medieval Scandinavian runes show a large number of variant rune-forms, and some letters, such as s, c and z, were often used interchangeably (Jacobsen & Moltke, 1941–42, p. VII; Werner, 2004, p. 20).

Medieval runes were in use until the 15th century. Of the total number of Norwegian runic inscriptions preserved today, most are medieval runes. Notably, more than 600 inscriptions using these runes have been discovered in Bergen since the 1950s, mostly on wooden sticks (the so-called Bryggen inscriptions). This indicates that runes were in common use side by side with the Latin alphabet for several centuries. Indeed some of the medieval runic inscriptions are actually in Latin language.

History of the alphabet
Middle Bronze Age 19th c. BCE Ugaritic 15th c. BCE Proto-Canaanite 14th c. BCE Phoenician 11th c. BCE Paleo-Hebrew 10th c. BCE Samaritan 6th c. BCE Aramaic 8th c. BCE Brāhmī & Indic 6th c. BCE Tibetan 7th c. Khmer/Javanese 9th c. Hebrew 3rd c. BCE Syriac 2nd c. BCE Nabatean 2nd c. BCE Arabic 4th c. Pahlavi 3nd c. BCE Avestan 4th c. Greek 9th c. BCE Etruscan 8th c. BCE Latin 7th c. BCE Runes 2nd c. Gothic 3th c. Armenian 405 Glagolitic 862 Cyrillic 10th c. Paleohispanic 7th c. BCE Epigraphic South Arabian 9th c. BCE Ge'ez 5–6th c. BCE
Meroitic 3rd c. BCE
Ogham 4th c.
Hangul 1443
Canadian Syllabics 1840
Zhuyin 1913